Understanding Regions

Part I (20 points) Compare the regions shown on Joel Garreaus Nine Nations map with each of the following three thematic maps in Diversity Amid Globalization Climate Regions, Selected Cultural Regions and Major Economic Activities

In Joel Garreaus Nine Nations map, North America is divided to nine specific nations or regions based on distinct cultural and economic aspects of the area. Garreau cites thePacific Northwestcoast, fromAlaskadown through British Columbia including Washington state andOregon,and running intoCaliforniato north ofSanta Barbara, all form a contiguous region called Ectopia. Garreau asserts that the region of Ectopia is defined by the values that revolve around quality of life, the environment and political advocacy. Another region, the Empty Quarters, which includes Alaska, Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Nevada and Colorado, is defined by the barrenness of the landscape, the dryness of the climate, the openness of the expanse. In short, the region is defined by its geography. Whereas, the Foundry -- a region encompassing New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Milwaukie -- is defined by the changing economic state. At the time of publication, those states were previously manufacturing centers but were at a steady decline.

Garreaus categorization is somewhat arbitrary in a sense that the regions are defined by different categories. One is demarcated by tradition and values, another by geography and yet another by economic pattern. Contrariwise, Rowntree et al define regions specific to particular categories. Areas may be defined in terms of temperature, humidity, windfall, etc. Areas with similar climate pattern form one region, thus forming climate regions.  In another category, the cultural landscape or marker of cultural values, attitude and symbols are considered, forming distinct cultural regions. In another category, the economic activity of the areas is examined, those with similar economic pattern, eg. farming, suburbanization, etc form recognizable region.

The regions in each of the category are distinct and quantized only in that category, meaning State A maybe in Region 1 of cultural region but maybe in Region 3 of climate region. This is because Rowntree et al acknowledge that no region is homogenous throughout its area therefore it would be too limiting to define regions based on mixed categories.

Part II (20 points) Compare Garreaus Nine Nations map with the more recent Patchwork Nation map used to represent the United States and particularly to analyze voting patterns.A) Please describe notable similarities and differences between Garreaus Nine Nations and the Patchwork Nation map.
   
Garreaus Nine Nations Map is defined by hodge-podge of categories  traditions and values (Ectopia), geography (Empty Quarter  the Islands), demography (New England  Dixie), language (MexAmerica  Quebec), and economic activity (The Foundry  The Breadbasket).
Notably, the Patchwork Nation Map is also defined by multitude of categories, economic activity (Tractor Country, Service Worker Centers, Industrial Metropolis), spending power (Monied Burbs, Boom Town), religion (Mormon Outposts  Evangelical Epicenters), demography (Minority Central, Immigration Nation, Emptying Nests, Campus and Careers), and even presence of military (Military Bastions).
B) Explain how the Patchwork Nation approach might help us understand US voting in the 2008 Presidential election.
 
In 2000, the terms Blue States and Red States came to be. Blue States (ie. Massachusetts, New York, California, Washington) traditionally vote for Democrats. The Red States traditionally vote for Republicans (ie. Texas, Mississippi, South Dakota, South Carolina). Looking at the 2008 Presidential Elections and the Patchwork Nation Map, we can see that traditionalist states (Military Bastions, Mormon Outposts, Evangelical Epicenters) primarily voted Republican. While states with more diverse ethnicity (Industrial Metropolis, Campus and Careers) voted Democrat. Surprisingly, Immigration Nation and Minority Central voted Republican in 2004 and Democrat in 2008. The Monied Burbs, although less diverse but wealthier and highly educated, voted Democrat. While Boom Towns, with greater diversity but lesser income voted Republican.

Geography Quantitative Methods

Analysis of Variance commonly known as ANOVA is both a method and model used in statistics for the purposes of analyzing differences in mean of a variable across a number of observations. Analysis of Variance utilizes the ratios of variance for purposes of determining whether there exists a difference in the means of the observations. Simply put, Analysis of Variance seeks to test differences between three or more variables normally measured on an interval scale (Lecture 2 Notes).
   
Analysis of Variance is relied on as a statistical tool since it is a pertinent building block for numerous statistical analyses, and for its ability to give a measure of the average squared deviation of a set of values around the mean. It is also a basic descriptive statistics and is the square of the standard deviation. Analysis of Variance will therefore be an extension of the difference of means test in a case where three or more variables differ in their ability to give similar outcomes (Lecture 2 Notes).
   
Analysis of Variance utilizes various testing structures including One-way Analysis of Variance, Two-way Analysis of Variance, and Multi-factor Analysis of variance. The One-way Analysis of Variance aims at testing the differences in a single dependent variable among three or more groups. In this experiment, One-way Analysis of Variance will seek to test the difference in the three different ways of learning a choropleth map. One-way Analysis of Variance will test whether the results obtained in the score sheet formed by the categories of choropleth map learning seem similar. In the event that the results on the score sheet seem to differ, it can then be concluded that the way of learning the choropleth map has an effect on the groups ability to answer correctly and fast. This means that different treatment groups have different outcomes (Lecture 2 Notes).
   
Analysis of Variance is based on certain requirements and assumptions. These include the assumption that three or more independent and randomly selected observations are independent, there are approximately equal number of participants in each observation, there is roughly equal variance between the conditions, and that the data are at an interval or the ration scale. All these requirements and assumptions should be true for all versions of the test (Lecture 2 Notes).
Method
   
Analysis of Variance will attempt to examine the manner in which the groups internally against the differences that are observable between them. In this experiment, Analysis of Variance will attempt to determine whether the mean response time from the three groups is significantly different as well as to examine the effect that a logarithmic transform have on a positively skewed data.
   
The following steps are to be followed for the One-way Analysis of Variance
The mean response time for each of the observations is to be calculated. This is known as the Group Means.
The mean for the entire group combined is calculated. This is known as the Overall Mean or Grand Mean.
The total deviation of each individual score from the Group Mean is calculated within each group. This is known as Within Group Variation.
The deviation of each Group Mean from the Overall Mean is calculated. This is known as Between Group Variation.
Analysis of Variance will then produce the F statistic which is the ratio between Group Variation to the Within

Group Variation.
In the event that the Between Group Variation is significantly greater than the Within Group Variation, then it is most probable that there exists a statistically significant difference the groups. The statistical package should be able to confirm if the F ratio is significant or not. If the Group Variance is close to the Within Group Variance, then the null hypothesis is accepted. However, if the Group Variance is significantly greater than Within Group Variance, then it is enough reason to have less confidence in the null hypothesis.

Results
The response time for individual tests within each group were recorded on a score sheet as indicated in table 1 (see appendix). The following Group Means and Overall Mean were calculated from the results
Group Means
Group 1 789102410871220126313411359146215131518157916702010233225852601261531249734  4082619  2148.73
Group 2
48783012061286148115631569158016161623162618382019219525465427  2891916  1807.44
Group 3
317579617741796104011821198123412721510160116911757216023544503  2455217  1444.24
Overall Mean  Grand Mean
Group 1 total  Group 2 total  Group 3 total  total responses
408262891924552  52  1813.40
Between Group Variation
Grand Mean  Group 1 Mean
1831.40  2148.73  -317.33
Grand Mean  Group 2 Mean
1831.40  1807.44  23.96

Grand Mean  Group 3 Mean  369.16
In working out if the three groups differ in their ability to correctly answer to the choropleth map questions and the response time taken by each group, and then it will be important to conduct a standard t-test between the group means. Analysis of Variance would be the ideal extension of the difference of means test to the three groups. In this experiment, all the Group Means are different

Since the Group Means seem different, it can therefore be concluded that the method of learning the choropleth map has an effect on the correctness of the response obtained as well as the response time duration by the subjects in each group.

Discussion  
The results of this experiment indicate that the subjects in group 1 took the longest mean response time in answering the choropleth map questions. The subjects in group 2 took less response time compared to group 1 subjects while the group 3 subjects took the shortest mean response time. The null hypothesis that was being tested was the correctness of the answers and the response time duration by a subject in remembering a choropleth map is dependent on the method used on learning the map. The alternative hypothesis was that there is no correlation between the correctness of the answers and the response time taken by subjects in remembering a choropleth map, and the method of learning the map. In this experiment, all the Group Means are different

Since the Group Means seem different, it can therefore be concluded that the method of learning the choropleth map has an effect on the correctness of the response obtained as well as the response time duration by the subjects in each group.
   
In conducting a One-way Analysis of Variance in testing the difference in a single dependent variable, in this case the time response duration among the three groups, it is clear that the three groups formed by the categories of the independent variable are different. The groups have different pattern of dispersion as measured by comparing estimates of group variances. It is on this basis of the difference of variances that it is concluded that the method of learning the choropleth map has an effect on the response time duration taken by the subjects. This means that showing the three groups the choropleth map in different ways produced different outcomes.
   
In this experiment, there is no significant difference between the Between Group Variation and the Within Group Variation. This means that there is no statistically significant difference between the three groups. Because our Between Group Variance is close to Within Group Variance, then the null hypothesis can be confidently accepted. It is therefore right to say that the correctness of the answers and the response time duration by a subject in remembering a choropleth map is dependent on the method used on learning the map.

Dritvik, Iceland

Only a few travelers know about a town in Iceland called Dritvik, because it is unspoilt, tiny and quiet. Its sleepy towns cater to nature trippers who are in for a nature walk any time of the day. Travelers who are looking for some action, wild nightlife and shopping havens have other places to visit in mind. However, Dritvik is still a worthy stop in Iceland because of the uniqueness of the place (Young and Young, 2008, p.1).

Historical Dritvik
Since 1550 to 1850, Dritvik, Iceland has been known for its fishing station. In Iceland, it was, since then, a commercial fishing station that helped the people with their livelihood. The foundations of the building in Dritvik could still be seen years after it was washed by away time and weather. Fishing was the main activity in Dritvik. Being a small town surrounded by glacier, Dritviks population has grown through the years since the 13th century because of fishing. A church and a few establishments were built to mark the growth and development of the population and the town (Harding and Bindloss, 2004, p.149).
   
Dritvik was among the biggest fishing stations in Iceland. Fishing grounds were put up for the open sea to be more accessible to fishermen. There were 40 to 60 boats in Dritvik, giving employment opportunities to over 600 people. Today, Dritvik is known in Iceland not only for its fishing villages and stations, but because of its black sand beach as well (Harding and Bindloss, 2004, p.149).

Why Visit Dritvik
Upon arriving at Dritvik, tourists will see fishing nets and boats on the black sand beach. Dritvik is a very interesting place to visit as it offers tourists a unique way of watching the intimate relationship of a small town to the sea. Excursions in Iceland become more worth it if tourists drop by Dritvik. There are a lot of reasons why Dritvik is worth a visit. The village church remembers the early days of Dritvik, showing tourists how it has evolved from a very small and sleepy town, to now a village that shows signs of development and commercialization. Of course, the food at Dritvik is also unforgettable as tourists will be assured that all fish served as fresh from catch (Evans, 2008, p. 248).

Recommendations
The problem, however, is that no matter how beautiful the place is, it still is not as attractive to tourists as Paris, New York, the Philippine islands or the Australian coasts. It is not attractive to tourists because they do not know the place. It is then highly recommended that the place should be advertised very well. It should be discussed in travel books, travel websites, in commercials and in all advertisements. Its local government should make it a point to promote tourism in the place. Dritvik should find its own tourists by making it known to the world (Young and Young, 2008, p.1).
   
From proper advertising and promotions, it would be easier for tourists to go to this place. Dritvik will soon profit from these travelers who visit this town. This profit should be used for the improvement of the town. Money from tourism can be used to build more establishments that will cater to the needs of its people and its tourists. Malls, churches, schools and entertainment hubs can be built. The flow of the economy will be ensured as there is enough money going around. As soon as these establishments are built, there will be enough money to build better roads so that Dritvik will be easier to access. In fact, there could even be an airport that can be created near Dritvik to attract more tourists (Morgan and Pritchard, 2001, p. 11).
   
From then on, the people of Dritvik should think of ways to profit more from tourism, like activities that tourists will surely enjoy. Some tourists are easily bored, and more of them feel restricted in Dritvik because aside from nature walks and watching the fishing village live its life, there is not enough to do. Water sports and activities can be started, the way they do in the Caribbean islands (Connell and Rugendyke, 2008, p. 137).
   
Since the town is not as developed as other small towns in Iceland, there are surely more fun to be discovered. As a fishing village, Dritvik is a promising town with lots of beautiful marine life to offer. Tourists can scuba dive or snorkel to see lots of underwater creatures. Underwater activities are one of the main reasons why people visit countries surrounded by waters (Connell and Rugendyke, 2008, p. 137).
   
Truly, Dritvik is a promising place. The villages alone can be tourist spots, because the homes of the residents are unique. In a world where employment is about working for corporations and going to offices everyday, Dritvik is the town that holds so many new things to show to travelers.
   
Being a fishing village, Dritvik is a special place for travelers who want to see something for the first time. It can show people a different way of life and a different way of making something for a living. Travelers these days are not only looking for something they can take a picture of. The wise travelers are looking for something unique, which Dritvik is all about.
   
If these recommendations are followed, Dritvik will be a destination in Iceland that is going to be a hit. Other places in Iceland are worth visiting, but Dritvik has something different to offer, especially when advertised properly. With its very interesting history, its rich and unique culture, and its very inviting waters and residents, Dritvik is a place to watch out for. It will not be too long until this place becomes more developed and popular around the world.

Personal statement

I have always had a passion for anything that deals with life sciences. Ever since I was a young kid, I have always wanted to explore these sciences and learn about the origin of life, its current state and its future. From the foregoing, it is evident that I am an obvious candidate for subjects such as geology, biology, astronomy and any learning field that explores the universe and the life in it. However, one may find it hard to connect this passion with the fact that I ended up studying fashion business for my bachelors degree. I was born in an entrepreneurial family, with my parents running a chain of fashion shops. Like other entrepreneurs, my parents had a desire to pass on their business traits to their children and somehow they ended up picking on me, something I could not turn down. I therefore ended up studying fashion business with the hope that with time, I would make a life for myself from that profession. I have had three years to optimize and utilize myself as a fashion professional but up to date, I struggle to get up in the morning to get to work.

I had a childhood filled with diversity, having spent it in different cities in Europe and North America. I was born in Munich, Germany and spent the first seven years of my life there. It was in this city that I got to experience the Alps. While living in Munich, I observed that the Alps sometimes appeared dark and unattractive but other times it became beautifully clear. This to me, is the first sign that I had an interest in matters Geography albeit subconsciously. I did part of my schooling in Switzerland, which is Germanys next door neighbor. While in boarding school there, we got to study local geography, a subject I really excelled in. The geography may have been localized but I believe that I excelled in the subject because it was geography. In fact, I continued excelling in geography after I joined high school although this time there was an addition of another favorite subject. In my high school, I excelled in biology and Geography to the extent that I even got confused as to which of the two was my strong point. Looking back however, I find that both subjects were actually my strong points only that I got derailed along the way and ended up studying a career I had little regard for. As I have come to notice, the knowledge of Biology provides one with a good basis for understanding Geography and the two therefore need not be in competition.

The prospect of studying Geography is an inspiring one for me. I am really enthusiastic and I can assure you that enrolling in to the program will be like a fulfillment of a lifelong dream. I am of course aware that by turning my back on the family business, I am taking a big risk in addition to  disappointing members of my family, who had put all their faith in me. Moreover, starting new career may be a tall order for me because it has been a while since I was in a geography class. These are all risks I am willing to undertake, after all, my passion has never let me down. A case in point is the fact that I managed to find myself a sponsor to cover my visit to Bamako in Mali. I have not talked about it but I have a passion to explore developing countries as well, something that led me to resolve to visit one when time and money allowed. I ended up in Bamako, Mali, under the umbrella of a youth volunteering group with my own sponsor. In other words, I am aware that I am taking a giant leap, but this is what I have always wanted to do, studying fashion business was actually a detour and I am now ready to take my rightful route to self actualization and fulfillment. My work experience has taught me traits such as patience and tolerance and, I cannot therefore dismiss the career so far as being entirely unhelpful.

These are some of the positive attributes that I will be putting to good use as I seek to pursue my passion because I know that geography is not a simple course. I do not expect a smooth ride but that is okay because I know that good things do not come easy and the same goes for a serious degree such as Geography.

Role of Humans versus Nature in Global Warming

Role of Humans versus Nature in Global Warming    
Global warming, particularly of earths surface, is a reality admitted by all climatologists. Majority of them hold humans responsible for this phenomenon though some skeptics attribute global warming wholly to nature (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6).  The role of humans versus nature in global warming forms the central point of this article. A perusal of arguments put forth by the majority and those of the skeptics as outlined in the article leads one to the conclusion that for global warming neither humans nor nature can solely be held responsible, together the two have caused the phenomenon (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6 GCRIO, 1997).
    
Greenhouse gases such as carbon-dioxide help in sustaining life by keeping the surface of the earth warm due to their heat trapping and retaining qualities. However, excess of these gases is fraught with negative consequences. According to scientific panel of the United Nations, the average surface temperature will rise by 2 to 6 degree Fahrenheit by 2100 if greenhouse emissions remain unchecked (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6). The panel predicts huge disruptions in climate, causing the global sea level to rise and flood many places. It is noteworthy that each individual year since 1992 has found mention in the list of 20 hottest years on record (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2006). By matching the observed and modeled patterns, scientists can now positively identify the human fingerprints associated with the changes which can be seen in the ocean, in the atmosphere, and at the surface(Union of Concerned Scientists, 2006). Present levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are higher than those measured at any particular point of time during the last 650,000 years.

The Inter-government Panel on Climate reported in 2001, that human activities are responsible for most of the warming recorded over the last fifty years (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2006). By human activities is meant burning of coal, oil and natural gas for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes, and deforestation. Land use changes, for example clearing land for logging, ranching and agriculture, also lead to carbon dioxide emissions (GCRIO, 1997). Due to these activities, boundary of troposphere, which contains earths weather, has lifted over the last twenty years by 900 feet (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2006).
    
The skeptics discount the reliability of the temperature samplings showing century long warming trends at the earths surface (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6). They point out that scientific models for measuring temperatures on earth have failed to reflect realities about upper atmosphere. The measurements supplied by earth satellites show negligent temperature change in most parts of the upper atmosphere. Dr. Gray and other skeptics believe that surface warming is wholly natural and opine that any future warming will be inconsequential or at the most near the low end of the range predicted by the UN scientific panel (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6). Solar energy changes, aerosols due to volcanic eruptions and snow or ice cover changes constitute main natural factors behind climate changes (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2006). Dr. Richard S. Lindzen, an atmospheric scientist and a skeptic, says that disparity of temperatures suggests that happenings at the surface are unrelated to greenhouse effect (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6). According to Dr. Michael Oppenheimer, the conclusion of National Research Council that surface warming is real, nullifies the key argument of the skeptics (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6).
    
Experts on both the sides agree about the imperfection of the climate models used (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6). The majority view concedes that size of human contribution has not been ascertained so far. In search of truth, the scientists are comparing the effects of man-made and natural factors on global warming by changing one variable at a time in their advanced models. The results indicate that human activities have enhanced heat trapping, retaining emissions and decreased ozone whereas solar energy changes have warmed both the troposphere and the stratosphere. With ozone depletion, lesser incoming sunlight is absorbed, leading to stratospheric cooling. A combined effect has produced an upward shift in tropopausal height, with 80 percent of the same being attributable to human activities (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2006).
    
All the climatologists agree that concentration of greenhouse gases is on the rise, for instance concentration of carbon dioxide has gone up by approximately 30 percent than what was before Industrial Revolution (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6). The substantial increase in global warming for the last twenty five years cannot be explained without taking into account the effect of greenhouse gases though the die-hard skeptics like Dr. Gray attribute it to changes in the movements of heat-bearing ocean currents, and hope that warming will be a few decade phenomenon and thereafter cooling will resume (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6).

The future climatic trends cannot be predicted with confidence as the inherent sensitivity of climate system to greenhouse effect is not known. Lack of knowledge about future rise in atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases further complicates the matters. Human efforts to improve efficiency will also impact the gas emissions and will interfere with any prediction about global warming. If one goes by the assertion that nature is wholly behind the phenomenon, not much can be humanly done to ameliorate the situation. Physicist Pablo F. Verdes analysis of data relating to strengths of solar radiations and volcanic activity for past 150 years, demonstrates that theses natural causes do not fully explain the observed warming (ScienceDaily LLC, 2007).
    
Inwardly, all the climatologists know that question of the causes behind global warming have not been conclusively decided as scientists have not been able to segregate the effect of greenhouse gases from natural climate fluctuations. As a study published in the American Meteorological Society has concluded, a combination of natural and human-made factors is responsible for warming (Stevens, 2000, p. F1, F6).

Sentence Outline

- This discussion shall focus on describing and exploring the rich culture of Saudi Arabia however, prior to that, it appears significant to first understand what culture is and what its major characteristics are.
What is Culture
A. Popular notions on culture
- Culture has been defined in several ways over the years of study and research of many anthropological and sociological efforts. It has been considered as one of the major identification and determinant of nationality, however, more technical studies seem to define it in a more extensive manner.
B. Expert definitions of culture based on biology and shared behavior
-Parson (1949) for example, defined culture in the context of heredity and biology when he proposed that  culture   consists in those patterns relative to behavior and the products of human action which may be inherited, thats is, passed on from generation to generation independently of the biological genes  (Parson 8). Damen (1987) on the other hand, defined it in terms of shared behavior as  learned and shared human patterns or models for living day-to-day living patterns  (Damen 367).

5 Major characteristics of Culture
A. culture is learned - Although the authors considered Parsons claim   that culture is biologically inherited   to have well a scrutinized basis, they argue that culture is rather learned than genetically passed on.
B. culture is shared - This characteristic is evidently incontestable in any given culture since culture has always been considered as a way of categorizing a certain group of people who hold shared values, beliefs, ideas and standards of behavior.
C.  culture is based on symbols - The authors explain that it is observable that human behavior in general is actually made up of several symbols. These symbols are most of the time representations of different entities of ideas that relate to them in a substantive way.
D. culture is integrated - By integrated, the authors meant that,  culture as a well-structures system (is) made up of distinctive parts that function together as an organized whole  (Haviland, Walrath and Prins 32)
E. culture is dynamic - The authors argue that culture is a system which actually responds to the changes, actions and motions that occur around it (34).

Common cultural characteristics of Saudi Arabia
A. Saudi Arabia became very distinctive through peoples way of dressing and even through its cuisine.
B. Since Saudi Arabia is basically made up of land mass, Arabs have been seen to be constant land travelers.
C. Since Saudi Arabia is basically made up of land mass, Arabs have been seen to be constant land travelers. The cuisine which has been greatly characterized by spices   that are rich in Arab lands   has also made the Saudi society very distinctive.
D. The Saudi society has carried on a traditional code of personal and collective honor which is called the sharaf.
E. Saudi Arabia has also become popular for its unique religious practices. In this area, people are used to praying more than once every day. Maghrib, which is known as the sunset prayer was also considered as the time of the day where most socialization start.
F.  Saudi has been very popular due to its very conservative perspectives. And when it comes to socialization, the Saudi society has retained their conservative perspectives. As a proof, up to date, no public cinemas are permitted to Saudi Arabia

Factors that currently affect the culture of Saudi Arabia
A. The effects of globalization in Saudi Arabia is most observed in telecommunications. Most television stations in Saudi today have already incorporated English programs in their programming, which means more English cartoons and educational shows for younger audience as well.
B. To address such a threat, the government of Saudi Arabia, through their constitution, sees to it that the education system in their country shall remain consistent in inculcating the Islamic beliefs and the traditional Saudi Arabian traditions and ways to children.

A Discussion and Explication of Saudi Arabias Culture and its Current Influences
Over the years, vague and ambiguous studies on culture have been conducted, and all these provided very extensive views on what culture really is. Culture has been a consistent topic of interest in the academe since it is one of the major considerations when it comes to studying the world and its history. Saudi Arabia is just one of the many countries with the riches and most diverse cultures. This discussion shall focus on describing and exploring the rich culture of Saudi Arabia however, prior to that, it appears significant to first understand what culture is and what its major characteristics are.

Culture
Culture has been defined in several ways over the years of study and research of many anthropological and sociological efforts. It has been considered as one of the major identification and determinant of nationality, however, more technical studies seem to define it in a more extensive manner. In the study of Mary Wang (2000) on the different cultures of the world, she was able to deduce that culture actually include several aspects such as, traditions, values, beliefs, ideologies, even cuisine, art and music. This implies that although culture has been considered through the years as a single category which determines the identity of a nation or a group of people, below it actually lies several other categories or sub-concepts  that also make a culture distinct from all the others.

This has been the common basis of experts in defining culture. And over the years, experts delved on different aspects in defining the ideal of culture. Parson (1949) for example, defined culture in the context of heredity and biology when he proposed that  culture   consists in those patterns relative to behavior and the products of human action which may be inherited, thats is, passed on from generation to generation independently of the biological genes  (Parson 8). Damen (1987) on the other hand, defined it in terms of shared behavior as  learned and shared human patterns or models for living day-to-day living patterns  (Damen 367). Damen also notes that such patterns and models penetrate all the areas of social interactions made by humans. Moreover, it was also noted that culture also serves a humans essential adaptive mechanism (367). However, aside from this definition, prior to exploring the diverse culture of Saudi Arabia, it also appears important to understand the major characteristics that make up the broad idea of culture.

5 Major Characteristics of Culture
Culture on its own is a vague and broad concept. One person cannot discuss it as if it is a simple and narrow ideal. As what has been mentioned earlier in this discussion, culture is made up of several aspects or sub-concepts. These aspects aid in categorizing how culture differ from one another. And in the process of defining what culture is, one could easily come across the five major characteristics of culture. Haviland, Walrath and Prins (2007) shared one study on what makes up a culture in their work entitled, Cultural Anthropology The Human Challenge. In this volume, the authors named several characteristics of culture, but 5 of these can be classified as the major traits. Firstly, the authors note that culture is learned (Haviland, Walrath and Prins 26). Although the authors considered Parsons claim   that culture is biologically inherited   to have well a scrutinized basis, they argue that culture is rather learned than genetically passed on. The authors also quoted the US anthropologist, Ralph Linton for his terminology, social heredity. Haviland and his colleagues defines this as the process where a learner of a certain culture grows up with it and eventually absorbs it and eventually learns about it.

They also note that the process where culture is being transferred s called enculturation (26). Most anthropologist would agree that culture also has something to do about a common behavior of pattern of behavior. Attitudes and behavior on things like eating, self-defense, shelter and sexual gratification can be easily related to a cultural identity. And to support their claim that culture is learned, Haviland and colleagues claim that through enculturation,  every person learns socially appropriate ways of satisfying the basic biologically determined needs  (26), and only here does Parsons claim on culture enters.

 Aside from this, it was also said that culture is shared. This characteristic is evidently incontestable in any given culture since culture has always been considered as a way of categorizing a certain group of people who hold shared values, beliefs, ideas and standards of behavior (27). Apart from these, Haviland and colleagues also argue that culture is based on symbols. The authors explain that it is observable that human behavior in general is actually made up of several symbols. These symbols are most of the time representations of different entities of ideas that relate to them in a substantive way (32). These symbols as the authors explain may include, national flags, cultural costumes, religious signs as well as money. Also, the authors claim that culture is integrated. By integrated, the authors meant that,  culture as a well-structures system (is) made up of distinctive parts that function together as an organized whole  (32). Evidently, this supports the many definitions on culture that claim that culture is an entity of many parts, just like what Damen claims. And lastly, Haviland and colleagues also note that culture is dynamic. The authors argue that culture is a system which actually responds to the changes, actions and motions that occur around it (34).

They specifically note that  when one element within the system shifts or changes, the entire system strives to adjust, just as it does when an outside force applies pressure  (34). Thus, in order to function properly, it also shows that a culture must hold some level of flexibility
 so as to easily adjust in different scenarios.
Saudi Arabia, as one of the most Rich and Dynamic in terms of Culture

Common Cultural Characteristics
Over the years, Saudi Arabia has been tagged as one of the most cited countries when it comes to talking about culture and tradition.  Saudi Arabia became very distinctive through peoples way of dressing and even through its cuisine. However, in looking at the bigger picture, one would easily observe these common characteristics that make Saudi Arabias culture unique from all the others. Firstly, Saudi Arabia sits on a a historic peninsula which connects to the historic Red Sea (Long 2). Most of the Arabian lands are covered with desserts, and this has impacted the nations culture in several ways. Since Saudi Arabia is basically made up of land mass, Arabs have been seen to be constant land travelers. The cuisine which has been greatly characterized by spices   that are rich in Arab lands   has also made the Saudi society very distinctive. Aside from this, Saudi has also become unique in terms of customs. The Saudi society has carried on a traditional code of personal and collective honor which is called the sharaf. This collective honor involves values like hospitality which has been very observable among Arabs. This tradition also specifies virility as the form of male honor, and modesty and the female counterpart (64). Moreover, there is  the concept of ikhlas as well.

This ideal is close to the general notion of sincerity. This is also one of the distinctive Arabian custom on honor and paying respects, but this time, on a more personal manner. Saudi Arabia has also become popular for its unique religious practices. In this area, people are used to praying more than once every day. Maghrib, which is known as the sunset prayer was also considered as the time of the day where most socialization start. Saudi has been very popular due to its very conservative perspectives. And when it comes to socialization, the Saudi society has retained their conservative perspectives. As a proof, up to date, no public cinemas are permitted to Saudi Arabia (64).

Factors that currently affect the Culture of Saudi Arabia
Generally, traditions if Saudi Arabia have always been conservative. Through the years, foreign immigrants have attested to how closed and traditionalist the Saudi Arabian culture is. Basing it in popular history, it can also be observed that one of the factors why Saudi Arabia has succeeded in freeing itself from colonizers is its conservative ways which held strong convictions and united movements as well. In the recent years, globalization has been inescapable in Saudi Arabia.

The effects of globalization in Saudi Arabia is most observed in telecommunications. Most television stations in Saudi today have already incorporated English programs in their programming, which means more English cartoons and educational shows for younger audience as well. This has been a current threat to the traditional and conservative Saudi Arabian society since young people are being exposed to foreign language and practices early. Globalization has also introduced foreign traditions and ways in terms of fashion, music and art in Saudi. This also posts the possibility that sooner or later, the traditional and conservative perspective of Saudi Arabia may eventually break. However, to address such a threat, the government of Saudi Arabia, through their constitution, sees to it that the education system in their country shall remain consistent in inculcating the Islamic beliefs and the traditional Saudi Arabian traditions and ways to children.

Education will aim at instilling the Islamic faith in the younger generation, providing its members with knowledge and skills and preparing them to become useful members in building of their society, members who love their homeland and are proud of its history. (Spring 73)

Hence, as it appears, the Saudi Arabian culture remains one of the most culturally preserved nations in the world as what its collective efforts manifest.

SYRIA REGIONAL STUDIES

Syria is geographically located in the Middle East and borders Iraq to the east, Turkey to the north, Israel to the south, and Mediterranean Sea to the west. It is 183, 900 square kilometers in area (Foreign  Commonwealth office, 2009). The Syrias terrain is typically a desert, and is a habitat to a number of drought resistant plants like boxwood, wild olive, and myrtle. The country has very little wildlife and remote areas are highly occupied with foxes, hyenas, eagles, buzzards, and lizards. Western region located near Mediterranean has the highest concentration of population in this country. Damascus is the capital city of Syria and remains the largest city. It is located along Barada River and encompasses a favorable location in a productive area adjacent to the desert. Historically, this city was used as commercial center and refueling stop for several traders who made trips through the desert (Charles, 1990). This paper addresses the pertinent cultural, climatic, as well as international relationships of Syria that are substantial for anticipated military deployment.

Knowing the culture of a particular country is quite imperative, as this enables individuals (military officers) to strictly adhere to the norms and traditions of the host country. Syria is culturally gifted, and encompasses strong ethical and moral values which are placed on religion, family, self discipline, respect, and education. Approximately 74 of the Syrian citizens are Sunni Muslims, 6 belong to Druze, Alawite plus other Muslim sects, and ten percent of the population is Christian (Foreign  Commonwealth office, 2009). As in a number of Arabic countries, religion makes a fundamental part of the countrys culture. The religious communities are basically self-contained societal systems which influence much of day to day life of their followers and receive their primary devotion, loyalty, and allegiance. The religious communities independence is a definite divisive force in this society. However, Muslim religion offers the pivotal cultural and symbolic orientation for approximately 85 of countrys population (Foreign  Commonwealth office, 2009). Therefore, the military team to be deployed in Syria need to be aware of these cultural values to avoid any conflict whatsoever.

They ought to discern that Syrian population values religion above all other cultural elements and that Islamic religion is the most dominant in the country. Military officers to be deployed must as well embrace the Islamic culture and shun activities which may perhaps conflict with the doctrines and beliefs on this popular religion.

In addition to culture, climatic or environmental conditions are very important in deployment of military officers in any country. Being conversant with the climatic conditions of a particular place enables preparation for the anticipated conditions prior to deployment process. The Syrias climate is largely Mediterranean, though it does experience a lengthy dry season from the month of May to October. Summer rain is too scarce in the country, although it sporadically appears in the extreme North West region. On the coastal region summers are characterized by high humidity and elevated temperatures, with a mean of 290C daily, whereas the mild winters record a mean of 100C daily. Besides, the only areas in Syria where summers are always cool are locations with an attitude of above 600 meters (Foreign  Commonwealth office, 2009). Bludan, Mashta al Helou, and Slunfeh are local favorites. When approaching the Syrian Desert and the steppe, the climate steadily becomes more and more arid, with colder and more tremendous winters and drier, hotter summers.

Yearly rainfall in the Western Mountains and coast ranges from 762 to 1020mm. Further inland, as one approaches eastwards, rainfall decreases suddenly. The steppe between Damascus and Aleppo receives approximately 255 to 510 mm of rainfall every year (Foreign  Commonwealth office, 2009). Rain in Syria is usually variable from one year to the other, especially in the autumn and spring months.

For instance, in the1999-2000 season, the country never received much rain and thus water reserves were quite low. Since Syrias summer seasons are always characterized with hot and dry conditions, with little or no rainfall, military officers to be deployed in this country should be prepared to live with these conditions (Foreign  Commonwealth office, 2009). The temperatures of about 290C daily are very high, especially when the military officers to be deployed are from the United States, where such high temperatures are rarely experienced. This can adversely affect the deployment process as well as military operation, as officers would be forced to first adapt to conditions before undertaking any other activity. The country has winter seasons as well, and these seasons are very cold. Officers to be deployed should equip themselves with clothing against cold. This would not be a major challenge, if the military officers are from United States, since they are used to such lower temperatures and adapting would not take much of their time.

International relationship of a country is very important in fostering peace and unity across borders. In the recent years Syria has ensured national security for its citizens, through augmenting influence among its neighbor countries, and realizing a comprehensive Israel- Arab peace settlement. At several points in its history, the country has seen vituperative tension with its Arab neighbors, such as Israel, Lebanon, Iraq, and Turkey (Charles, 1990). Today, its relation has considerably improved with some of these states. However, its relation with other neighbor countries has just slightly improved. The relationship between Syria and Arab world was strained when the country supported Iran in Iraq-Iran war of 1980. Following the end of this war in 1988, Syria began a gradually process of reintegration with other members of Arab world. Since then, the country has shown a commendable international relationship not only with the Arab world, but with other nations as well (Foreign  Commonwealth office, 2009). In deploying military officers in a foreign country, information on international relation is inevitable, as it enables the officers to identify the major adversaries of the country and thus, curbing any potent attack.

Syrias cultural values of morals and ethics are placed largely on the religion, family, discipline, and respect. The majority of people in Syria are Muslims and thus, Islamic religion is the determining factor in a number of social as well as societal issues in the country. Therefore, military deployment in this country ought to respect the religious structures of Islamic religion in order to flourish in their operations. Syria has got two major seasons of summer and winter. Summer seasons are highly characterized by hot and dry conditions, with an average temperature of about 29oC daily. Winter seasons are characterized by cold conditions, with a mean temperature of approximately 10oC. Deployment process should put these climatic conditions into consideration in order to deter any interference in their planned operations. Finally, over the years, Syrias international relation has not been a good one. Its currently struggling to correct this through gradual negotiations and understanding with different states of the world. 

Causes of droughts

Human activities are largely to blame for the increased frequency and intensity of droughts that continue to be experienced in several parts of the world. Man has put a lot of pressure on the existing water resources thus overstretching them beyond limit. The great pressure has brought about several devastating problems that have affected the manner in which various processes take place naturally. The impacts of human activities on drought have been worsened by the fact that some of the human activities are carried out in a non sustainable manner. This implies that they cannot be used over extended periods of time as they will soon be unable to regenerate (Barry  Phillips, 2004).

Causes of drought
Droughts are basically as a result of lack of rainfall in a region for an extended period of time. Failure for the rain to fall implies that there will be inadequate water for the ground to take through absorption so that the same water can later evaporate into the atmosphere and thus continue with the hydrological cycle. Since drought is mainly due to lack of rainfall and the rainfall shortage can largely be blamed on the human activities, then in this respect, it is in order to argue that human activities indirectly cause droughts. Human activities are entirely to blame for the current global phenomena of climate change and global warming. They both have been solely caused by human activities through the emission of green house gases which have had a lot of impact on the global climate patterns and temperatures increasing drastically. As a result of climate change, the rainfall patterns have greatly changed, some regions that previously received ample rains no longer receive them making the areas to experience very severe droughts every now and then. The rainfall distribution has changed both temporally and spatially thus resulting into increased desertification and drought. Even though the same amount of rainfall may be received in an area as it used in the past, its distribution is very important. A lot of rainfall may be received within a very small region and thus will not be of much benefit as compared to rains that fall over an extensive region. In a similar sense, rainfall that falls in great amounts over a short period of time leaving the rest of the year dry will also not be useful in eliminating droughts (Barry  Phillips, 2004). 

Forests and mountain regions are important water catchment areas and they contribute significantly to the water volumes in a region. However, the human activities have not spared these vital natural resources and they have been exploited extensively posing a great danger to water as a resource that is obtained from these regions. Forests allover the world are being cleared at a very high rate by humans in order to get land for grazing and cultivating, obtain timber and other products that are obtained from trees and also to get land for settling. Regardless of the use to which the cleared land is put into, clearing of forests by humans has resulted into a lot of bare land that has further increased the intensity and frequency of droughts in several parts of the world. Due to deforestation, very little water if any is originating from these former water catchment areas making several regions to do without rainfall and other forms of precipitation (Oblack, 2009).

Overgrazing is another human activity that causes droughts overgrazed lands are usually left bare with very little if any vegetation cover that is vital in reducing the occurrence of droughts. This was the case in the Great Plains of the US in 1930s when overgrazing resulted into an extended drought. Improved water and agricultural practices were later used to prevent the repeat of such a disaster in future. The bare lands left behind due to over grazing are very vulnerable to soil erosion where much of the eroded soil is deposited into water basins thus inhibiting their ability to carry and hold much water. In turn, this impacts very negatively on the availability of water especially if the affected water basins were the main reservoirs in the region and were contributing to conventional rainfall. Once such water basins are filled with silt from overgrazed lands, such rainfall will no longer be available in such regions and the region will have to experience extended periods without rainfall (Barry  Phillips, 2004).  

Consequences of drought
Droughts impact very differently in countries at different levels of economic development. Lack of rainfall interferes with the food chain in the nations at low levels of economic development since most of them rely heavily on rain fed agriculture. This therefore means that any substantial change in the amount of rain received in such countries will have a great impact on their land productivity.  Hence, droughts in such nations have in virtually all cases resulted in severe food shortages leading to massive starvation and deaths of such populations. These communities also suffer immensely since they do not have enough resources to construct water storage facilities so that they can keep some water during the periods of excess rainfall to be used during those of depressed rains. Poverty is therefore greatly increased during periods of drought since these populations apart from them having a poor harvest they also lose their livestock to the drought (Oblack, 2009). 

The impacts are less severe in nations at very high levels of economic development they can do without rains for long periods since they have the capacity of storing ample water to be used during periods of drought. As a result, they minimize their losses during drought periods since they are in a position to produce enough food for themselves and also for their livestock. They rely less on rain fed agriculture and instead utilize irrigation to make their land productive during periods of drought. This therefore implies that the food chain is less affected by drought in nations at high levels of economic development (Barry  Phillips, 2004). 

The human activities are the main causes of drought, they depress the water resources making it difficult for the hydrological cycle to go on normally and thus reducing the amount of rainfall received in a region. The human activities have had a great impact on the manner in which rainfall patterns take place thus making some parts to receive below normal rainfall for long periods of time. Even though all the impacts of drought are negative and result into a lot of losses, they are dissimilar in different nations depending on the level of economic development. The impacts of drought are more devastating in countries at a low level of economic development while their impacts are much less in countries at high economic levels.

Modern City is a product of class struggle

Modern cities of today are regarded to have resulted from class struggle. The term class struggle refers to the active appearance of class friction viewed at a socialistic perspective. Class membership is determined by the connection with the means of production. The idea of class struggle originated from the Utopian socialists and the theories of Saint Simon. The idea was given much weight by the French historians, but Marx differed with their idea and regarded class struggle as the central detail of social advancement. The history of all the previously existed human society is a product of class struggle. Development of capitalism resulted in the acute form of class struggle with the emergence of two classes which are proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

There were also other classes which shared the characteristics of the two main classes (Ellison, para. 3)
The struggle was between the two major classes that is the proletariat or workers who were involved in selling their labor in order to earn a living. This class had no other means of survival apart from the wages they got from their labor. The bourgeoisie who are also referred to as the capitalist were getting their income from the excess value they got from the laborers who were working for them. This means that their income were from exploitation of their laborers who were the proletariat (Lee, para. 4).

The Roman Republic is considered as one of the cities which developed as a result of class struggle. The different classes of the society were not in a position to provide a solution to the stalemate that the Roman society was faced with (Woods, para. 6). The republic was at the verge of falling since its social foundation was lost. The fall of Roman Republic was evident from persistent political crises, party conflict, revolutions and counterrevolutions. Both the peasants and the senators were both in debt. The emergence of money economy resulted in breakdown of the old social linkages as well as the political power that depended on them (Lawson, para. 4).

ince the ancient system ceased to exist and there was no replacement for it, the people in Rome started organizing for riots and upheavals that made it possible for people to abolish the existence of political power.

The Roman laborers were unproductive and independent class. Even the capitalists and the aristocrats could not provide a solution to the existing stalemate and this led to the long and shameful misery of the Roman republic that led to Caesarism and the Roman Empire. The class struggle in Rome at this time resulted in one party taking over from the other even with no solution to the existing problem. The released slaves were forced into voting so as to enable their masters to become street leaders. Politicians also appeared on the streets and a big number of freed slaves gathered to force the senate to pass some particular laws. The political struggle went out of hand and this resulted in to the army involvement in politics (Tucker, para. 2).  
Class struggle has also been experienced in New China between the urban and the rural people and the government controlled capitalists. The local government officials are trying to grab rural lands and evicting the owners through threats and violence.

The displaced people end up in the cities where they are forced into battles with employers and local authority for good pays and basic rights (Ellison, para. 5). This results in frequent demonstrations experienced in China cities. The rural area around Da Ba village located in Chongqing province is a steep and green area but is crowded with several small, coal fired factories and power plants. The area is very suitable for agriculture but because of its proximity to Chongqing capital, it is filled with small power plants, mines, queries and the cement factories that supply the capital. Da Ba is a typical village with a small centre crowded with storied buildings along the dusty streets. The farmers in this village are involved in struggle with people who want to grab their land in the name of development and increasing their profitability. The people started having trouble in 2005 when the village party secretary revealed to several farmers that they will be forced to sell their land to a privately owned mining company. The farmers refused to accept their terms arguing that the price they offered was quite low (Lee, para. 5). 

There was a resulting struggle and the police was then involved to intimidate the farmers. Farmers stood their ground and this resulted into many leaders being jailed and battered. Police went to the extent of raiding homes belonging to the farmers and beating the suspected leaders. The farmers were later barred from working on their lands and thus denied from their livelihoods. In the long run, about 200 farmers gave their land while some sued the local government. Such cases are reported to be common in China since there is increasing rural and urban protests also termed as burgeoning class struggle. With the economy evolving from Maoist socialism to quasi Maoist capitalism, farmers have been exposed to frequent struggle for their lands like the one experienced in Da Ba because of increased appetite for land and natural resources like coal. The major land grabbers are local authority officials (Woods, para. 7).

Class struggle was also experienced in Mexico. World economy had been created because of capitalism. This resulted in plunging undeveloped countries, colonies, and semi colonial countries into the world of capitalism taking the class struggle to the most interior parts of the world (Ellison, para. 7). Yankees and the English imperialist penetration of Mexico led to the start of industrial towns. It began with extractive industries which were later followed by railroads which later spread over to local areas. Imperialist encroachment resulted into deformation of manufacturing industries. Bourgeois democratic revolution was started in the year 1910 under the protection of Yankee imperialists with the aim of changing a section of millions of peasants who were so devoted to their farming activities into laborers in their industries. They also needed to create a class of landowners, whom they would depend on, therefore copying agrarian revolution which acted as a way of reducing the peasants interest in their land (Lawson, para. 7).

By the year 1910, a very small percentage of rural population possessed 80 of the land. The percentage of the people owning land later reduced tremendously with about one fourth of the one percent of the agrarian landowners owning about 65 of the land while 65 of the rural population left without land at all. At this time, the country had various classes of people which were, large absentee landowners who owned the highest percentage of the countrys land, rich peasants and landlords, middle peasants, small landowners, poor peasants and day laborers. Day laborers formed the majority of the proletariat who were later involved in class struggle in Mexico (Tucker, para. 4)

There was massive industrial development with the capital invested by industries increasing from 979.5 million to 1,822.8 pesos within a period of about five years. The value of production is also recorded to have increased by about 90. Despite the increase in capital investment and value of production, sum total of wages achieved only 14.76 increment. At the same time imports and exports was also recorded to have increased by about 156. National bourgeoisie resulted into a conflict with imperialism leading to the creation of a revolutionary and anti imperialist and coming together of proletariat. Proletariat acted as a force and opposing group supporting national bourgeoisie (Ellison, para. 9) Theory of economic democracy also emerged due to the class conflict which was proved by increased investments, value of production and imports and exports. There was also marked change in workers work conditions which became better gradually (Lee, para. 7).
   
It is true that majority of the modern cities resulted from class struggle. Examples of such cities are Mexico, New China, San Francisco and Roman Republic among others. Like in New China in the village of Da Ba, the struggle was between the farmers and the local authority officials who were putting pressure on the locals to sell their lands to private developers. Because of this, a town was created with various industries and most farmers lost their land which was also the source of livelihood.  In Mexico, the scenario was the same with few people owning vast land rendering majority land less. The people rendered land less was then forced to provide cheap labor therefore facilitating industrial growth.

International Development - Theories

Question 1
There were various planning theories which were put forth towards international development project. These planning theories include modernization theory and rational theory. These theories were introduced without the consideration of developing countries which are curbed with poverty. In laying down these planning theories, developed countries were considered as the reference point thus making these theories of no essence to the developing countries. The planning theories of mid twentieth century were ineffective in bringing forth sustainable development in developing world contexts (Sen, 1999). There were various reasons behind the inefficiency. Uncertainty and poverty which are mushrooming in developing countries brought about the inefficiency.

The uncertainties in within the developing countries creates unstable economy making any plans are laid down being inefficient. This is because the developing countries are defined with rapid population increases which affect the laid down planning theory. The rapid population increase brings forth unplanned issues such as environmental degradation. The building up of carbon dioxide occurs. These uncertainties make the planning theory introduced in the mid 20th century being inefficient (Genesha, 2002). To implement plans, requires substantial input including money. Most developing countries are not in a position to support any international development due to poverty. Most of the planning theories are introduced in mind of the developed countries. These plans can not be implemented in developing countries were poverty is the norm of the day.

Modernization theory and rational theory were formulated with the prevailing technology in developed countries. To create a sustainable development plan, technology is a vital parameter. Developing countries are far much behind in technology compared to developed countries. This means that the planning theories which were devised were inefficient to developing countries (Easterly, 2000).
Modernization theory highlights on social changes which occur due to economic revival. Industrialization is the basis of modernization theory. Bureaucratization and urbanization are the defining factors in modernization theory. Many changes are witnessed in various social groups such as education, education and family (George, 2002). This theory is really inefficient in creating sustainable development in developing countries where these changes can not be implemented due to poverty and uncertainties.

By and large however, the failure of these theories in creating a long lasting impression of social and economical changes in the developing word emanated from the complexity of the unstable political and economic structures that characterized such nations. Notably, developing countries have classically been evident of unstable states of governance where the rule of struggle for survival of anarchical leaderships characterized by personal wishes is the order of the day (Edella, William, 1996). Consequently, such governments failed to reach a cordial consensus with which they would put these political theories into real world practice.

Question 2
Most developed countries do not concentrate on uplifting the poverty in developing countries. Instead, they participate in other issues which are of benefit. These include exploration, archives and war. They do not give emphasize on important facilities such as hospital and school which are inadequate in developing world. In addressing poverty in third world countries, Amartya Sen introduces mechanism of dealing with poverty. These involve accountability, governance and capitalism (Sen, 1999). Amartya considers social institutions in alleviating poverty in third world countries. To facilitate alleviation of poverty in developing Sen introduces two approaches. The involvement of institutions is considered the way out of poverty. Formulation of valued oriented ethics is also considered vital.

Amartya has been advocated for his philosophical guidelines towards self governing and controlling the state of economic conquest for the developing countries. Amartya thus advices on the use of the key local resources that are available within such developing nations in creating an overwhelming state of economic benefit for all (Daniel, 2005). Amartya would thus advice that the principle use of economic capitalism where resources endowed in the hands of the productive arm of the economy would virtually act to create a long lasting economic impression of self fit. Elsewhere, he would not leave behind the rationale for accountability (Gaus, 2000). To him, accountability is what brings social and economic responsibility in the use and occupation of the state resources. Implementing a good model of state governance would also be an important tool to embrace. Good governance according to Amartya would help to secure security of the contemporary state resources.

Easterly on the other side gets his focus on the principle ideals of self reliance on the side of the developing nations as the only way with which they would uproot themselves from the anarchical and controlled state of relationship between them and the developing nations. He would thus hesitate over the need for enacted entrepreneurial activities in such countries which would help to make use of the most available local resources for the productivity of the nations. He would also ignore the anarchical help given to these national by the World Bank and the IMF which is basically enslaved with strings attached to it. Wealthy nations such as Canada and United States sideline the developing word. Poverty has been attributed to under payment and exploitation of workforce. Children are considered to participate in creating labor, an issue which affects education thus prompting poverty. Easterly focuses on the setbacks of the World Bank in alleviating poverty (William, Sidnehy, 1998).

Easterly argues that the failure to achieve promises by World Bank is brought about due to violation of economic principles. Provision of incentives to facilitate entrepreneurial practices is the way Easterly deems fit in alleviating poverty (Easterly, 2000). Easterly considers income distribution as a good way of alleviating poverty. He considers income redistribution as a factor to economic growth. Sen and Amartya consider alleviation of poverty in developing countries as the way out in enhancing international development.

Topic Final Exam

Over the 20th century the US cities underwent some drastic changes. Since the end of World War II, American cities continued to grow spontaneously. First, dirt in streets became history as all streets were cemented with concrete or asphalt. With advent of strong steel girders, building had sparked upward, from three or two stories to hundreds and beyond. Moving along the streets was not only people and carriages, but new mechanical conveyances such as streetcars and automobiles. Garbage collection began and animals such as pigs and chicken that roamed the streets were no more. By 2006, more people lived in cities than in rural areas.

Suburbs
 First, the number of urban edges dwellers continued to increase and by early 21st century, the composition of urban edge dwellers composed of upper and middle classes. Cheaper urban edge land and relaxed policies on its use attached to it drew those who worked in cities to live there. As a result of developments in newer modes of transport electric streetcars, urban edge manufacturing and vegetable production grew in scale. It is during the first half of 20th century that American suburbs attained their present reputation as home of middle class. As more people drove cars, small roads fanned out of main roads leading to unprecedented dispersion of the dwellers.

Rural Areas 
For much of the 20th century many rural areas lost their population as more residents left for opportunities in expanding cities. However, the rural-urban migration stalled in 1970s as rural earnings outweighed cities earnings with rural development picking up in early 21st century. Racial diversity increased in rural areas during the 1990s and post 2000 period. Rural manufacturing has replaced agriculture dominance in rural areas as more labor force is engaged in manufacturing.
   
Foreclosure and credit crunch that have been experienced recently have effects on cities, suburbs and rural areas. First, due to credit crunch, many banks revised their lending policies and hence credits no longer become ease to get. As a result, housing construction slowed and people would were tempted to revert to rural areas where homes are available. Secondly, collapse in housing increased housing crisis as many people lost their homes for failure to repay loans. In addition, credit crunch increased cost of living in towns that could force people to move to the suburbs. 

QUESTION 2
State California
Vision Statement to build a prosperous 21st century state where each resident is in reach of sound education, sanitation facilities such clean drinking water, decent housing, security and gender and racial equality.
Assets to be employed
   
It is possible to build a more prosperous economy through increasing knowledge on capital, meaning to use capital assets wisely to prosper and survive. This can be achieved through conducting public education on finance throughout the city to increase understanding about how capital and credit markets behave.
   
One strategy that can be used to make wise use of capital is through pooling of capital by residents to create one large pool from where investment on either real estate or stock markets is done. This would form the one of the states greatest assets.

Growth in information communication technology
 From my own perspective, I see California having an opportunity to prosper through innovative information and communication technologies. The ICT industry provides technological innovation that can help state in achieving higher productivity and growth. Therefore, my goal will be to develop a rich base of ICT technologies skills that can stimulate innovation, competitiveness, and growth across all industries in California. To achieve this, I will make sure that California has  a government committed in promoting ICT technologies, accessible and relevant education that builds ICT skills and operating environment that encourages ICT investment by potential investors.
  
Trade as an asset Trade contributes the highest percentage in the states gross domestic product and there I will seek to broaden and deepen the states export base (Ranharter, 2000). This will be realized through increasing the number of California companies engaged in exporting, helping current export develop new markets and advocate for Californias companies competing for foreign opportunities.

QUESTION THREE   
The four strategies that have been put into use by the best performing metropolis can still be employed by Flint, MI MSA and other metropolis which are performing in a similar manner. It is only wise that the authorities in poorly performing metropolis reduce the costs of doing business. These will ensure that jobs are created and maintained in their respective areas. The second strategy should involve the education standards. It is important that the population in a metropolis has education acquired skills as almost everything that has to do with growth and development is knowledge based. The third strategy is to improve the service and hospitality industry. It was noted that the best performing cities have their service industry well organized and because of these they were able to do booming tourism business. The fourth strategy should involve the idea of reducing interest rates. It will be for the benefits of the cities to reduce the interest rates in order to attract investors. Low interest rates mean that there is a low cost of borrowing and this will induce people to borrow more in order to invest.

QUESTION FOUR
The major reason why there may be a reduced demand for housing is decline in population. The other reason is due to low income levels of inhabitants of a certain area. For a planner, heshe has to look at the causes of these two major reasons and then come up with ways of trying to improve the situation. The immediate thing that the planner should do in order to avert the layoff is to offer construction subsidies to construction companies. This will mean that construction costs will be reduced. As the major reason involves population decline, the planner ought to think about the causes of population decline in the city. The major reason of the population may be scarcity of jobs. In hisher plan, the city planner has to think about how to create jobs.

Heshe may do this by coming up with policies that will, for example, encourage investors to start industries in the city. The other reason why people may avoid settling in an area is negative stereotyping. This stereotyping may be related to crime levels in a certain area. If the city planner in our case realizes that the crime levels are high in this city, heshe should push the relevant security authorities to do something about it. There are other factors that may deter people from demanding houses in a certain area. These factors may have something to do with provision of certain social amenities like schools and health facilities. In addition, the availabilityunavailability of credit facilities determines whether people will or will not settle in an area.  In his plan, the city planner should ensure that adequate social amenities are provided and policies regarding financial institutions should encourage developers to open even private financial institutions which will offer credit to local business population.

Today, planning official has to consider the following issues more deeply than a planner 30 years ago sustainability, land values, air pollution, traffic congestion, crime rates, zoning codes, and legislation. though the planners of today and those of the 1970s considered all or most of these issues, they did this with differing degrees of emphasis. For example, in the 1970s, the levels of traffic congestion were not as pronounced as they are today. In the current times, planners have to think of how to develop and at the same time decongest the already congested city. The issue of land value in the present times is a major issue in any development debate. For any developer making a budget for any development project, heshe has to consider the cost of land as this takes the better part of the budget. Thirty years ago land was not a major part in development budgets. Many legislative acts concerning planning have come up in the recent times. A planner has to take into consideration all these acts. Crime is another issue that a present planner has to mind. Today, there are eight times as many gangs as there were thirty years ago. This is another issue that gives present times planners a headache. In conclusion, the main thing here is that although both past and current planners dealt with similar issues, the issues that current planners are dealing with are more complicated and advanced, making planning work difficult.

Food Insecurity in the Developing World

Food security is said to exist when all people have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to cater for their dietary needs (Gonzalez, 2004). While access to sufficient and nutritious food is recognized internationally as one of the basic rights every individual is entitled to, food insecurity has ravaged the third world. In Africa and Asia, millions of people lack enough food, and their number is increasing by the day. There are fingerprints of war, disease, cultural backwardness and poor agricultural practices in the third world situation. However, other factors including colonialism, trade liberalization, and the Green Revolution have played a significant role in fanning the worsening food insecurity, and under- and mal-nourishment that characterizes many parts of the third world today. The three-faced problem of colonialism, trade liberalization and the Green Revolution is the focus of this paper.

Colonialism and food insecurity in the third world
Over 800 million people living in Asia and Africa lack access to enough and nutritious food today. Asia is home to 60 percent of the people without food while Africa accounts for 25 percent of the world malnourished. However a greater percentage of Africans (33 ) are undernourished compared to Asias 16 percent (Lund, 2008).

Colonialism can be seen as a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to another. Europe notoriously colonized many parts of Africa and Asia where the Europeans imposed their political sovereignty and beliefs (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006). The rationale for colonialism was simple and straightforward. It was a vehicle for the colonialists to relocate resources from the colonies to Europe. With improving sea transport, the Europeans could transport large shipments of raw materials from Africa for their industries abroad and ship back some of the finished products for sale in the colonies.
Colonialism was the sole force behind the shift from traditional food production to export-oriented agricultural production in the colonized Third World. The colonialists regarded the colonies as their sources of raw materials for industries including the sugar and energy industries.

When they colonized Africa and Asia, the colonialists rubbished the diversity of traditional food crops which the indigenous people grew and promoted specialization in crops which the Europeans needed for their industries. One of the most devastating effects of colonialism is that millions of indigenous people lost their farmland to the colonialists who needed large tracts of land to establish huge plantations (Harvey, 2007). The loss of farms meant that thousands of Africans and Asians had no land on which to grow food or keep livestock. Unfortunately, some of the millions who lost their land during the colonial era did not regain their land even after their countries fought free of the colonialists grip. This is evident in the serious land problems which still dog Kenya, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia where millions of people starve because they have no land on which to grow food.

More importantly, colonial-era agriculture was characterized by economic and agricultural specialization in the Third World.  The colonialists chose one or a few agricultural products which flourished in the colonies, and went ahead to specialize on those, to the detriment of the indigenous crops on which the people had depended on for centuries. It did not help matters that most of the crops favored by the colonialists were exotic to the Third World countries and thus required irrigation, manufactured fertilizers, and other products which were not practiced widely in the Third World previously.

Crop and livestock diversity in the Third World was thus threatened as the colonialists enforced specialization. India became a sugar producer, Malaysia produced rubber, Egypt produced cotton, Kenya produced tea and coffee, Ghana produced cocoa, Cuba produced sugar, while Argentina produced beef and wheat (Gonzalez, 2004). It is evident from the list that most of the agricultural products were exotic to the countries and are today vulnerable to vagaries of world market price fluctuations. Even worse, most of them are non-food products and has made many countries in Asia and Africa food importers, and victims of perpetual food insecurity.

Trade Liberalization and food insecurity
Trade and non-trade relationships between countries and regions have intensified to levels not known before. Since the end of the Second World War and the cold war which ended with the fall of communism, countries which were initially divided along political lines have since mended their relationships or created some where they did not exist before. Powerful nations which were bitter opponents during the cold war like China and the US are now close trade partners, transacting between them trade worth billions of US dollars annually.

Increased trade relations have accompanied the effect that the policy of any one country has an impact on others. International trade has created the need for rules to govern trade practices among the players.  The most important of these reforms included the removal of export subsidies, production subsidies, and the elimination of tariff barriers to international trade. Trade liberalization is informed on the notion that unhindered competition and removal of price-distorting policies improves efficiency in the long-run. Third World countries were therefore expected to remove subsidies of their agriculture and open up their markets to competing products from the developed world. One of the most prominent effects of trade liberalization in the Third World is that millions of farmers are unable to raise the capital required for agricultural production. Without access to loans and subsidies, most farmers in the developing world are forced to resort to subsistence agriculture characterized by rudimentary technology and production methods. Furthermore, because they produce in small-scale, the cost of production per unit in the developing world tends to be higher than costs in the developed world which still subsidizes its agriculture heavily (Shrivastava, 2009).

While the developed world gets unhindered access to markets in the developing world, the developed world use both tariff and non-tariff instruments to impede the developing worlds access to its markets (Trueblood  Shapouri, 2001). Competition from cheaper agricultural products from the developed world challenges the profitability of agricultural products from the developing world. The effect of decreased profitability is that more and more people in the third world abandon agriculture for jobs in the manufacturing and service sectors (Mwaniki, n.d).

Therefore one key change in the global trade regulation that could alter or improve food security for the low income food deficit countries (LIFDCs) is the strict regulation of trade liberalization which has continued to injure food security especially for smaller economies. As such the beneficiaries to the liberalization are larger economies which have export-oriented farming. This tremendously affects small scale farmers are inadequately equipped to compete in the global arena, increasing the levels of unemployment and poverty. Thus non-liberalization policies could be introduced to enable the disadvantaged farmers compete and sustain programs that would adequately address their plight.

The Green Revolution and food insecurity in the Third World
Beginning the 1960s, the world of agriculture ushered in a new era. The advent of the Green Revolution seemingly symbolized the end of food insecurity with the entry of disease- and pest-resistant crops. The strains produced for release to agricultural producers could resist most of the disease and pest which had proved most destructive then. Though Africa and Asia were reasonably sluggish in adopting the Green Revolution which promised to revolutionize agriculture, they adopted the little they had access to. This made exotic crops, which had and were continuously replacing the indigenous crops, even more preferable to the indigenous crops and farmers rushed to adopt the seemingly more productive crops.

The bubbles burst when the farmers realized that the new crops were susceptible to other diseases and were actually more vulnerable than the indigenous types. The father of the Green Revolution, Norman Borlaug, sounded the warning, This thing has immense potential for social and human destruction. Borlaug warned that the famines which the revolution was supposed to have expelled could ravage the world again (Mackenzie, 2007). When a strain of black stem rust, the Ug99, struck wheat crop in Uganda, none of the wheat could withstand it. Many more diseases have come up and dealt farmers huge losses. The other effect of the revolution was that it emphasized on dependence on agro-chemicals which made agriculture unnecessarily expensive. Farmers in the Third World are now forced to spend millions of US dollars on chemicals. As noted above, trade liberalization has made agriculture in the Third World significantly unprofitable. The extra burden of the cost of agrochemicals makes agriculture even more difficult for the farmers.

The combination of the effects of the Green Revolution, colonialism and trade liberalization has created untold chaos in agriculture in the developing world. The majorities of the farmers produce non-food crops for the export markets and remain vulnerable to international market fluctuations. Trade liberalization has also tipped the international food markets sharply in favor of the developed world, discouraging agricultural production in the developing world. Until the developing world does something to counter the effects of these three effects, food insecurity in the developing world can only get worse in the future.

DIAMOND CONLFICTS IN AFRICA

Diamond mining and trade has with time brewed intense conflicts in Africas diamond rich countries. According to the United Nations Security Council, conflict diamond is,
...diamonds that originate from areas controlled by forces or factions opposed to legitimate and internationally recognized governments, and are used to fund military action in opposition to those governments, or in contravention of the decisions of the Security Council(Campbell 13).

War-torn regions of south Africa (Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo and Botswana) and central Africa (Liberia, Angola and Ivory Coast) have been related to conflict diamonds and this has often prompted the international community in a bid to protect human rights to lay sanctions on these countries so as to stop the illegal trade of bloodconflict diamond. Conflict diamonds issues caught the attention of the international community in late 1990s following the bloody conflict in Sierra Leone (Celia 1). Sources indicate that close to four percent of the worlds diamond industry constituted of conflict diamonds in the 1990s. In Angola for instance, Jonas Savimbi leader of UNITA rebel group, re-armed his forces through conflict diamond funds in 1998 despite the many years of UNs financial and arms sanctions.  To date, the intervention of the United Nations has considerably reduced the trade in conflict diamond to less than one percent (Campbell 25). This achievement is credited to the efforts of the diamond industry, NGOs such as Partnerships Africa Canada, Global Witness and Amnesty International, the UN and respective governments through the Kimberly process which certifies origin of any diamond entering the legitimate diamond market. Evictions of inhabitants from diamond fields has also been an issue of humanitarian concern as most people have been unlawfully evicted without resettlement in the name of diamond production.
   
In a case of Zimbabwe the participants of the United Nations campaign against conflict diamond are seeking to halt the armys smuggling of diamond (Celia 1). According to Kimberly process investigators, the army has been intensively involved in mining and smuggling of diamond into the legitimate market. However, the efforts to penalize countries that violate the international diamond industry standards such as Zimbabwe face tough challenges given that another Kimberly participant can block the suspension of a country as in South Africas protection of Zimbabwe. A 44-pages through investigation report by the Kimberly investigators notes that Zimbabwe army have been in involved in operation of unlawful syndicates that mine diamond from the diamond rich Marange fled and then smuggling it into Mozambique (Campbell 57).

Though not a case of conflict diamond, the smuggling process has been identified as a potential avenue through which conflict gold can be introduced noting the recent political unrest in the country. President Mugabe who pioneered the political strives is the one in charge of the military and the ministry of mining in the coalition government. Suspension of Zimbabwe would repress its activity in the international diamond market therefore repress Mugabes source of funds to run the military. This draw back towards the fight against human rights violation is that some provisions under Kimberly allow protection of a country by another. Its alleged that the government is aware of the smuggling and its failure to combat illegal mining and smuggling is threatening Africans diamond market abroad (Celia 2). Noting the complexity of the case, opponents of conflict diamond have proposed a majority vote decagon none the issue rather than consensus.
   
Until recently, Botswanas Diamonds for Development initiative had been a successful foreign policy when the international NGOs raised concerns over conflict diamond cases following the evictions of the San bushmen form Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR). Botswanas diamond earns the government 80 of the total export and forty percent of the GDP (Jacqueline 2). San bushmen had been relocated following what NGOs claim as diamond finds in CKRG. This adversely destabilized their life prompting the international community and other NGOs such as Survival International and other movements such as the First people of Kalahari to intervene in order to assert for the rights of the bushmen which had been violated in the name of diamond mines. In 2006, Botswanas high court resolved that the Bushmen be allowed back to CKGR by which the government vowed to abide (Jacqueline 4). The governments interpretation of the resolution was rather repressing on the rights of the Sans as it laid strict conditions for the Bushmen families returning to CKRG. Sans though, had proposed that they be allowed back unconditionally into CKRG to resume their normal gathering and hunting lives. The government had restricted the entry of applicants spouses, rearing of livestock and restricted hunting to traditional methods. 

The states move followed the unaccountability of failure of the various national and international movements mandated to champion for bushmens rights (Jacqueline 7). This outcome has prompted experts to question the integrity and competency of some of the human rights movements as they created a distorting picture of the government. The punitive government guidelines have been blamed on the intrusive movements. The movements had spread rumors linking the relocations with diamond mining thus labeling Botswanas diamond as conflict diamond. On its side, the government declines that the relocations were inspired by diamond mines but admits that relocations  were prompted by a plan to develop its tourism industry. The government though violated human rights by not giving them complete freedom.    

Sinkholes

Sinkholes, also known as cenote, doline, swallet, swallow hole, shake hole and sink, is a natural hole or depression in the surface topography of the Earth brought about by the waters erosion of the bedrock and soil. The size in depth and diameter of sinkholes may vary from less than a meter to hundreds of meters. Sinkhole occurrences are frequent in areas where the rocks underneath the land surface are composed of salt beds, carbonate rock, or limestone that can be naturally softened by the groundwater passing through them. Alarmingly, when the land above is not anymore capable to support the spaces caused by the dissolved rocks, the area will unexpectedly collapse, destroying any man-made and natural structures directly above the area. In the United States, particularly in the central part of the Florida State, sinkhole occurrences and their consequences are not an unusual phenomenon.

Mechanism Causing Sinkhole 
As earlier stated, sinkhole occurrences are frequent in areas where the rock underneath the land surface are composed of salt beds, carbonate rock, or limestone. However, sinkholes can likewise occur in landscapes that have no or little surface drainage. Because of the retention of ponds from heavy rains, sinkholes are eventually developed in these landscapes (Sinkhole). In addition, human activities can sometimes trigger the formation of sinkholes. These activities include abandonment of mines that eventually collapse, sewer collapses and water main breakages when old pipeline gives in, as well as over extraction and over pumping of subsurface fluids and groundwater. Likewise, sinkholes may form when the patterns of natural water-drainage are altered and new water-diversion structures are created. In view of the different types and causes of sinkholes, the mechanisms of their formations may, therefore, either include the decreasing of the water table the crumbling of a cave roof and the continuing erosion of limestone, or other slightly soluble bedrock, by the penetrating water (Sinkhole).
   
There are primarily three different types of sinkholes in Florida the subsidence sinkholes, solution sinkholes, and collapse sinkholes. The mechanisms of these sinkholes are likewise different. Collapse sinkholes in Florida are normally commenced by the water-table fluctuations (Buying Florida Sinkhole Homes). As the water levels fluctuate, the surface opening is damaged and stressed, and when the water-table excessively decreases, the hollow walls become unsupported and weak, thus eventually causing the sinkhole occurrence. Solution sinkholes, on the other hand, are initiated when clay or mud on the ground surface is absent or thin (Buying Florida Sinkhole Homes). When this happens, the limestone bedrock may be eroded from wind and water. Eventually, as the surface rocks are eroded and broken down, a depression will naturally form, causing the sinkholes. Finally, subsidence sinkholes are initiated when clay or mud on the surface is considerably thin and only a layer of deposits is present on top of the limestone. Overtime, a concave depression will then appear in the ground due to the sliding of the soil into the cavity. Because of the restricted water flow caused by the depression, water is accumulated and a lake is then formed.
Impact of the Sinkhole on People and on their Activities
   
In Florida, sinkholes have destroyed a number of buildings, roadways, and swimming pools (Sinkholes). These jarring scenes act as a harsh reminder for the residents of the state that sinkholes are a part of their everyday life. Unfortunately, sinkholes have even more increased the possibility of property damage within the Florida area due to the expected development and growth of the state. As a result, this alarmingly recurring phenomenon has made the lives and properties of all residents of Florida in constant exposure to danger, and the states economic development and activities somewhat confined.
   
Likewise, because of the prevalence of sinkholes in Florida, the states sinkhole law has been constantly amended. Therefore, the rights of the property owners have likewise been continually affected particularly the property insurance procedural mechanisms that now require even more strict regulations to the policyholders, and payment of higher premiums for expanded coverage (New Florida Law Covers Sinkholes). The payment of higher premium has produced an enormous negative consequence to homeowners seeing that many of them have dropped sinkhole coverage on renewal, leaving them in a terrible condition if their houses are eventually destroyed. Moreover, for many years sinkholes have been utilized as dumping locations for different types of wastes in Florida. Such practice has polluted the groundwater resources within the area, and has alarmingly affected the health of some of the residences.

Steps to Prepare for Recurrence of Sinkhole 
Many natural sinkholes are unpreventable, thus it is important for the people in Florida, together with the government and non-government organizations, to be aware of the necessary steps to prepare in case of sinkhole recurrences. They must realize that the starting point of sinkhole in Florida is the presence of permeable limestone layer underneath the states topsoil. For that reason, geophysical surveys must be continually conducted by the government and private organizations to establish the probable weak zones so that any preexisting breaches or cavities can be avoided or plugged. Residents of Florida must likewise be aware of the warning signs of sinkholes as the final collapse can take place over a period of a few minutes.

These warning signs may include cracks in building foundations, windows and doors fail to properly close, gradual restricted ground settlement, etc. (What Is a Sinkhole). If any of these signs take place, then the affected person must immediately report, through phone or the Internet, to the Florida Geological Survey for proper investigation (Sinkhole Report Form). Currently, in order to prevent and manage sinkhole collapse, more than 20 gypsum stacks are placed by the government within the vulnerable areas of west-central Florida (Sinkholes, West-Central Florida 137). These gypsum stacks are lined at their foundations to obstruct the penetration of unnecessary groundwater as well as lessen the effects on the groundwater system.

Managing the Aftermath of Sinkhole Disaster   
Sinkholes should never be used as or filled with trash deposits because they act as natural drainage spots for the groundwater system. Because anything buried underground can likely affect the groundwater, it is important to use only clean materials. In view of that, the filling must necessarily be concrete or other native earth materials. It is also important to add clayey soil on top of the filling to constitute a barricade that will assist in putting off the water from penetrating downward all the way through the gaps that could further expand them. Unfortunately, if this process is not followed, contaminants may enter the groundwater, and the problems associated with it will take place, posing a threat to the environment, and to the health and safety of all residents within the area.

   
Sinkhole is a natural hole or depression in the surface topography of the Earth that is brought about by the exclusion of bedrock and soil by water, which is a very common phenomenon in the karst regions of Florida. There are primarily three different types of sinkholes in Florida and the mechanisms of these sinkholes are likewise different. All the same, all these types have made the lives and properties of the residents of Florida in constant exposure to danger, and the states economic development and activities somewhat confined. It is, therefore, important for the people and government of Florida to be aware of the necessary steps to prepare in case of sinkhole recurrence, and how to manage the aftermath of sinkhole disasters to prevent further problems.